রোমান্স ভাষাসমূহ: সংশোধিত সংস্করণের মধ্যে পার্থক্য
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১৬ নং লাইন:
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'''রোমান্স ভাষাসমূহ''' ({{lang-en|Romance languages বা Romanic languages}}) [[ইন্দো-ইউরোপীয় ভাষা-পরিবার|ইন্দো-ইউরোপীয় ভাষা-পরিবারের]] একটি শাখা। [[রোমান সাম্রাজ্য|রোমান সাম্রাজ্যের]] ভাষা [[লাতিন ভাষা|লাতিন]] থেকে উদ্ভূত সবগুলি ভাষা এই ভাষা-পরিবারের অন্তর্গত। এই ভাষাগুলিতে [[উত্তর আমেরিকা]], [[দক্ষিণ আমেরিকা]], [[ইউরোপ]], [[আফ্রিকা]] ও বিশ্বের বিচ্ছিন্ন কিছু ক্ষুদ্র অঞ্চলে প্রায় ৭০ কোটি মানুষ কথা বলে থাকে।
সবগুলি রোমান্স ভাষা [[প্রাকৃত লাতিন ভাষা]] (Vulgar Latin) থেকে উৎপত্তি লাভ করেছে। রোমান সাম্রাজ্যের সেনা, বণিক, ব্যবসায়ী ও সাধারণ লোকালয়ের মানুষেরা এই প্রাকৃত লাতিন ভাষায় কথা বলত। প্রাকৃত লাতিন ছিল ধ্রুপদী লাতিন থেকে বেশ আলাদা। ২০০ খ্রিস্টপূর্বাব্দ থেকে ১৫০ খ্রিস্টাব্দের মধ্যবর্তী সময়ে রোমান সাম্রাজ্যের ব্যাপক বিস্তার ঘটে এবং এসময় পূর্বে [[কৃষ্ণ সাগর]] থেকে পশ্চিমে [[আইবেরীয় উপদ্বীপ]], উত্তরে ব্রিটিশ দ্বীপপুঞ্জ থেকে দক্ষিণে উত্তর আফ্রিকা পর্যন্ত এক বিশাল এলাকা জুড়ে সাম্রাজ্যের প্রশাসনিক ও শিক্ষামাধ্যমের ভাষা হিসেবে লাতিন আধিপত্য বিস্তার করে। [[৫ম শতাব্দী|৫ম শতাব্দীতে]] রোমান সাম্রাজ্যের পতনের পর স্থানীয় লোকালয়গুলিতে লাতিনের বিভিন্ন উপভাষাগুলি দ্রুত বিবর্তিত হতে থাকে এবং বহু অসংখ্য স্থানীয় ভাষার জন্ম দেয়। এদেরই কিয়দংশ বর্তমান আধুনিক রোমান্স ভাষা হিসেবে টিকে আছে। ১৫শ শতকের পর স্পেন, ফ্রান্স ও পর্তুগাল বিশ্বের অন্যত্র উপনিবেশ স্থাপন করায় এই ভাষাগুলি ইউরোপের বাইরে অন্যান্য মহাদেশে ছড়িয়ে পড়ে। বর্তমানে রোমান্স ভাষাভাষী ৭০% লোকই ইউরোপের বাইরে বসবাস করে।
প্রাক-রোমান ভাষার প্রভাব ও পরবর্তীতে অন্যান্য ভাষার আক্রমণ সত্ত্বেও সবগুলি রোমান্স ভাষার [[ধ্বনিতত্ত্ব]], [[রূপমূলতত্ত্ব]], [[শব্দভাণ্ডার]], ও [[বাক্যতত্ত্ব]] মূলত লাতিন ভাষার বিবর্তিত রূপ। ফলে ভাষাগুলি এমন কিছু ভাষাতাত্ত্বিক বৈশিষ্ট্য অর্জন করেছে, যা এদেরকে অন্যান্য ইন্দো-ইউরোপীয় ভাষা থেকে আলাদা করে রেখেছে। দুই-একটি ব্যতিক্রম ছাড়া সবগুলি রোমান্স ভাষাই ধ্রুপদী লাতিনের declension বা নামশব্দের রূপভেদ ব্যবস্থা বর্জন করেছে। সবগুলি রোমান্স ভাষাই কর্তা-ক্রিয়া-কর্ম এই বাক্য গঠন অনুসরণ করে, এবং ব্যাপকভাবে পুরঃসর্গ বা preposition ব্যবহার করে।
== নাম ==
রোমান্স "Romance" নামটি প্রাকৃত লাতিন ক্রিয়াবিশেষণ ''romanice'' থেকে এসেছে, যেটি আবার ধ্রুপদী লাতিনের ''romanicus'' (রোমানিকুস) শব্দ থেকে বিবর্তিত।
রোমান্স বা রোমান্টিক উপন্যাসে ব্যবহৃত রোমান্স শব্দটির ব্যুৎপত্তিও একই। মধ্যযুগে ইউরোপে গুরুগম্ভীর রচনা মূলত লাতিনে লিখিত হত, আর সাধারণ জনগণের জনপ্রিয় প্রেমের কাহিনী ও অন্যান্য লঘু রচনাগুলি রচিত হত স্থানীয় প্রাকৃত ভাষায় রচিত হত এবং এগুলিকে রোমান্স বলে অভিহিত করা হত।
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৫০ নং লাইন:
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== বর্তমান মর্যাদা ==
মাতৃভাষীর সংখ্যা অনুযায়ী সবচেয়ে বেশি প্রচলিত রোমান্স ভাষাগুলি হল [[স্পেনীয় ভাষা]], [[পর্তুগিজ ভাষা]], [[ফরাসি ভাষা]], [[ইতালীয় ভাষা]] ও [[রোমানীয় ভাষা]]। এগুলির প্রতিটিই একাধিক রাষ্ট্রের প্রধান ও সরকারী ভাষা।
<!--A few other languages have official status on a regional or otherwise limited level, for instance [[Friulian]], [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]] and [[Franco-Provençal language|Valdôtain]] in Italy; [[Romansh language|Romansh]] in Switzerland; [[Galician language|Galician]], [[Occitan language|Occitan]] [[Aranese language|Aranese]] and [[Catalan language|Catalan]] in Spain (the last of which is also the only official language in the small sovereign state of [[Andorra]]). French, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, and Romanian are also official languages of the [[European Union]]. Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian, Romanian, and Catalan are the official languages of the [[Latin Union]]; French and Spanish are two of the six official languages of the [[United Nations]].
Outside Europe, [[French language|French]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] are spoken and enjoy official status in various countries that made up their respective [[colonial empire]]s. French is an official language of [[Canada]], [[Haiti]], many countries in [[Africa]], and some in the [[Indian Ocean|Indian]] and [[Pacific Ocean]]s, as well as France's current overseas possession. Spanish is an official language of [[Mexico]], much of [[South America]], [[Central America]] and the [[Caribbean]], and of [[Equatorial Guinea]] in [[Africa]]. Portuguese is the official language of [[Brazil]], multiple countries in Africa and of [[East Timor]]. Although [[Italy]] also had some colonial possessions, its language did not remain official after the end of the colonial domination, resulting in [[Italian language|Italian]] being spoken only as a minority or secondary language by immigrant communities in [[North America|North]] and [[South America]] and [[Australia]] or African countries like [[Libya]], [[Eritrea]] and [[Somalia]]. [[Romania]] did not establish a colonial empire, but the language spread outside of Europe due to emigration, notably in Western Asia; [[Romanian language|Romanian]] flourished in [[Israel]], where it is spoken by some 5% of the total population as mother tongue,<ref>[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=ron 1993 Statistical Abstract] of Israel reports 250,000 speakers of Romanian in Israel, while the 1995 census puts the total figure of the Israeli population at 5,548,523</ref> and by many more as a secondary language, considering the large population of Romanian-born [[Jews]] who moved to Israel after [[World War II]].<ref>[http://www.eurojewcong.org/ejc/news.php?id_article=110 Reports of about 300,000 Jews who left the country after WW2]</ref>
[[Image:Romance-procents.png|thumb|right|275px|Proportion of the 690 million native Romance language speakers contained by each language.]]
৮৭ নং লাইন:
===Features inherited from Classical Latin===
The Romance languages share a number of features that were inherited from Classical Latin, and collectively set them apart from most other Indo-European languages.
* They have two grammatical numbers, singular and plural (no [[Dual (grammatical number)|dual]]).
১৭৫ নং লাইন:
In spite of their common origin, the descendants of Vulgar Latin have many differences. These occur at all levels, including the sound systems, the orthography, the nominal, verbal, and adjectival inflections, the auxiliary verbs and the semantics of verbal tenses, the function words, the rules for subordinate clauses, and, especially, in their vocabularies. While most of those differences are clearly due to independent development after the breakup of the Roman Empire (including invasions and cultural exchanges), one must also consider the influence of prior languages in territories of Latin Europe that fell under Roman rule, and possible [[homogeneity|inhomogeneities]] in Vulgar Latin itself.
It is often said that French and Portuguese are the most innovative of the Romance languages, each in different ways, that [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]] and [[Romanian language|Romanian]] are the most isolated and conservative variants, and that the [[languages of Italy]] other than Sardinian (including [[Italian language|Italian]]) occupy a middle ground.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} Some even claim that [[Languedocien language|Languedocian Occitan]] is the "most average" western Romance language. However, these evaluations are largely subjective, as they depend on how much weight one assigns to specific features. In fact all Romance languages, including Sardinian and Romanian, are all vastly different from their common ancestor.
Romanian (together with other related minor languages, like [[Aromanian]]) in fact has a number of grammatical features which are unique within Romance, but are shared with other non-Romance languages of the [[Balkans]], such as [[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]]. These include, for example, the structure of the vestigial case system, the placement of articles as suffixes of the nouns (''cer'' = "sky", ''cerul'' = "the sky"), and several more. This phenomenon, called the [[Balkan linguistic union]], may be due to contacts between those languages in post-Roman times.
===Sound changes===
The vocabularies of Romance languages have undergone considerable change since their birth, by various phonological processes that were characteristic of each language. Those changes applied more or less systematically to all words, but were often conditioned by the sound context or morphological structure.
Some languages have lost sounds from the original Latin words. French, in particular, has dropped all final vowels, and sometimes also the preceding consonant: thus Latin ''lupus'' and ''luna'' became Italian ''lupo'' and ''luna'' but French ''loup'' {{IPA|[lu]}} and ''lune'' {{IPA|[lyn]}}. Catalan, Occitan, many Northern Italian dialects, and Romanian ([[Daco-Romanian]]) lost the final vowels in most masculine nouns and adjectives, but retained them in the feminine. Other languages, including Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, and the Southern dialects of Romanian have retained those vowels.
Some languages have lost the final vowel ''-e'' from verbal infinitives, e.g. ''dīcere'' → Portuguese ''dizer'' ("to say"). Other common cases of final truncation are the verbal endings, e.g. Latin ''amāt'' → Italian ''ama'' ("he loves"), ''amābam'' → ''amavo'' ("I loved"), ''amābat'' → ''amava'' ("he loved"), ''amābatis'' → ''amavate'' ("you ''(pl.)'' loved"), etc.<!--WE COULD PUT A SMALL TABLE HERE, WITH 2-3 OTHER LANGUAGES-->
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Sounds have often been lost in the middle of words, too; e.g. Latin ''Luna'' → Galician and Portuguese ''Lua'', ''crēdere'' → Spanish ''creer'' ("to believe").
On the other hand, some languages have inserted many [[epenthesis|epenthetic]] vowels in certain contexts. For instance Spanish, Galician and Portuguese have generally inserted an ''e'' at the start of Latin words that began with ''s'' + consonant, such as ''sperō'' → ''espero'' ("I hope"). French originally did the same, but then dropped the ''s'': ''spatula'' → arch. ''espaule'' → ''épaule'' ("shoulder"). In the case of Italian, a unique article, ''lo'' for the definite and ''uno'' for the indefinite, is used for masculine ''s'' + consonant words (''sbaglio'', "mistake"), as well as all masculine words beginning with ''z'' (''zaino'', "backpack").
২৬৮ নং লাইন:
All Romance languages are written with the "core" [[Latin alphabet]] of 22 letters — ''A'', ''B'', ''C'', ''D'', ''E'', ''F'', ''G'', ''H'', ''I'', ''L'', ''M'', ''N'', ''O'', ''P'', ''Q'', ''R'', ''S'', ''T'', ''V'', ''X'', ''Y'', ''Z'' — subsequently [[alphabets derived from the Latin|modified and augmented]] in various ways. In particular, the letters ''K'' and ''W'' are rarely used in most Romance languages — mostly for unassimilated foreign names and words, as they were in late Latin.
While most of the 22 basic Latin letters have maintained their phonetic value, for some of them it has diverged considerably; and the new letters added since the Middle Ages have been put to different uses in different scripts. Some letters, notably ''H'' and ''Q'', have been variously combined in [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s or [[trigraph (orthography)|trigraph]]s (see below) to represent phonetic phenomena not recorded in Latin, or to get around previously established spelling conventions.
A characteristic feature of the writing systems of almost all Romance languages is that the Latin letters ''C'' and ''G'' — which originally always represented {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/g/}} respectively — represent other sounds when they come before ''E'', ''I'', and in some cases ''Y'' and ''Œ''. This is due to a general [[palatalization]] of {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}} before front vowels like {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/e/}}. This is believed to have occurred in the transition from Classical to Vulgar Latin. Since the written form of all the affected words was tied to the classical language, the shift was accommodated by a change in the pronunciation rules. However, the new sounds of ''C'' and ''G'' in those contexts differ from language to language.
৩২৬ নং লাইন:
Diacritics common across Romance languages are the [[acute accent]] (''á''), the [[grave accent]] (''à''), the [[circumflex accent]] (''â''), the [[diaeresis|diaeresis mark]] (''ü''), and the [[tilde]] (''ã''). French spelling includes the etymological [[Ligature (typography)|ligatures]] ''œ'' and (more rarely) ''æ''. [[Romanian alphabet|Romanian]] has a few diacritics of its own.
An accent mark placed over a vowel generally denotes [[Stress (linguistics)|stress]], [[Vowel#Height|height]], or both. In Spanish, only stress is indicated, with an acute accent. Romanian ''[[â]]''/''[[î]]'' and ''[[ă]]'' are [[central vowel]]s; stress is not marked in this language. Catalan and Occitan regularly mark stress with an acute accent on [[high vowel]]s, and with a grave accent on [[low vowel]]s in a similar but not identical way. Similarly, French ''é'' is a high-mid vowel and French ''è'' is a low-mid vowel, although in French stress is not indicated with diacritics. Italian marks stress with the grave accent, except on high ''e'' and ''o'', which are sometimes marked with an acute accent. Galician marks both stress and height with an acute accent, due to the fact that only stressed vowels can be pronounced low. Portuguese marks stress with the acute accent, except for high ''a'', ''e'', ''o'', which take a circumflex accent.
The [[cedilla]] (''ç''), and the [[Comma (punctuation)#Diacritical usage|diacritical comma]] ({{unicode|''ș''}} and {{unicode|''ț''}}, in Romanian) are used to mark sound changes due to [[Palatalization#Historical .28diachronic.29 palatalization|historical palatalization]]s.
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