পাপুয়া নিউ গিনির ইতিহাস: সংশোধিত সংস্করণের মধ্যে পার্থক্য
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১১ নং লাইন:
|title=Early humans lived in PNG highlands 50,000 years ago
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== ইউরোপীয় যোগাযোগ ==
[[File:Thevenot - Hollandia Nova detecta 1644.png|thumb|350px|A typical map from the [[Golden Age of Dutch cartography|Golden Age of Netherlandish cartography]]. [[Australasia]] during the Golden Age of Dutch exploration and discovery (ca. 1590s–1720s): including [[New Guinea#European contact|Nova Guinea]] ([[New Guinea]]), [[New Holland (Australia)|Nova Hollandia]] ([[mainland Australia]]), [[Van Diemen's Land]] ([[Tasmania]]), and [[New Zealand place names|Nova Zeelandia]] ([[History of New Zealand|New Zealand]]).]]
When [[Europe]]ans first arrived, inhabitants of New Guinea and nearby islands, whose technologies included bone, wood, and stone tools, had a productive agricultural system. They traded along the coast (mainly in pottery, shell ornaments and foodstuffs) and in the interior (exchanging forest products for shells and other sea products).
The first known Europeans to sight New Guinea were probably the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] and [[Spanish people|Spanish]] navigators sailing in the South Pacific in the early part of the 16th century. In 1526–1527 the Portuguese explorer [[Jorge de Menezes]] accidentally came upon the principal island and is credited with naming it "Papua", after a [[Malay language|Malay]] word for the frizzled quality of [[Melanesia]]n people's hair. The Spaniard [[Yñigo Ortiz de Retez]] applied the term "New Guinea" to the island in 1545 because of a perceived resemblance between the islands' inhabitants and those found on the [[Guinea (region)|African Guinea]] coast.
Although European navigators visited the islands and explored their coastlines thereafter, European researchers knew little of the inhabitants until the 1870s, when Russian anthropologist [[Nicholai Miklukho-Maklai]] made a number of expeditions to New Guinea, spending several years living among native tribes, and described their way of life in a comprehensive treatise.
[[File:British flag raised on new guinea annexed by queensland.jpg|thumb|British flag raised in Queensland 1883]]
== পাপুয়ার অঞ্চল ==
{{main| Territory of Papua}}
In 1883, the [[Queensland|Colony of Queensland]] tried to annex the southern half of eastern New Guinea, but the British government did not approve. However, when Germany began settlements in the north a British protectorate was proclaimed in 1884 over the southern coast of New Guinea and its adjacent islands. The protectorate, called '''British New Guinea''', was annexed outright on 4 September 1888. The possession was placed under the authority of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1902. Following the passage of the Papua Act in 1905, British New Guinea became the '''Territory of Papua''', and formal Australian administration began in 1906, although Papua remained under their control as a British possession until the independence of Papua New Guinea in 1975.<ref>John Waiko. ''Short History of Papua New Guinea'' (1993)</ref>
There was little economic activity in Papua. Australia administered it separately under the ''Papua Act'' until it was invaded by the [[Empire of Japan]] in 1941, and civil administration suspended. During the [[Pacific War]], Papua was governed by an Australian military administration from Port Moresby, where General [[Douglas MacArthur]] occasionally made his headquarters.
[[File:Flag of German New Guinea.svg|thumb|left|Flag under German control of New Guinea.]]
== জার্মান নিউ গিনি ==
{{main|German New Guinea}}
[[File:Hissen der kaiserlichen Flagge auf Mioko.jpg|thumb|Hoisting the German flag at [[Duke of York Islands|Mioko]] in 1884]]
With Europe's growing desire for [[coconut oil]], [[Johann Cesar VI. Godeffroy|Godeffroy's of Hamburg]], the largest trading firm in the Pacific, began trading for [[Copra plantations in New Guinea|copra in the New Guinea Islands]]. In 1884, the [[German Empire]] formally took possession of the northeast quarter of the island and put its administration in the hands of a chartered trading company formed for the purpose, the ''[[German New Guinea Company]]''. In the charter granted to this company by the German Imperial Government in May 1885, it was given the power to exercise sovereign rights over the territory and other "unoccupied" lands in the name of the government, and the ability to "negotiate" directly with the native inhabitants. Relationships with foreign powers were retained as the preserve of the German government. The ''Neu Guinea Kompanie'' paid for the local governmental institutions directly, in return for the concessions which had been awarded to it. In 1899, the German imperial government assumed direct control of the territory, thereafter known as '''German New Guinea'''.
New Guinea was basically a business venture. Thousands of local workers were hired as cheap labor on cocoa and copra plantations. In 1899, the German government took control of the colony from the New Guinea company of Berlin. Education was in the hands of missionaries. In 1914 when the First World War broke out Australia seized the German colony. The plantations were given to Australian war veterans and in 1921 the League of Nations gave Australia a trusteeship over New Guinea. The plantations and gold mining generated a degree of prosperity.<ref>John Dademo Waiko, ''Papua New Guinea: A History of Our Times'' (2003)</ref>
== নিউ গিনির অঞ্চল ==
{{main|Territory of New Guinea}}
The Commonwealth of Australia assumed a mandate from the [[League of Nations]] for governing the former German territory of New Guinea in 1920. It was administered under this mandate until the [[Japan]]ese invasion in December 1941 brought about the suspension of Australian civil administration. Much of the Territory of New Guinea, including the islands of [[Bougainville Island|Bougainville]] and [[New Britain]], was occupied by Japanese forces before being recaptured by Australian and American forces during the final months of the war (see [[New Guinea campaign]]).
== নিউ গিনির বাধ্যতামূলক এলাকা অন্বেষণ ==
=== আকমানা অভিযান ১৯২৯–১৯৩০ ===
The exploration of Papua–New Guinea has been a continuing process. As of October 2017 new groups of people occasionally are still contacted. Not until recent years has New Guinea's exploration been planned; much of it has been the work of miners, labour recruiters, missionaries, adventurers, with different objectives in mind. Many of these people have been doers, not recorders of facts, with the result that our knowledge of the territory's exploration has not kept pace with the exploration itself.'<ref>[[Stuart Inder]], Editor "Pacific Islands Monthly" April 1971 p. 40 Introduction</ref>
An exception is the record of the Akmana Gold Prospecting Company's Field Party which carried out two expeditions from September to December 1929 and from mid February to the end of June 1930.<ref>Ernest Alfred Shepherd, 'Akmana: A new name in the continuing story of New Guinea exploration' "Pacific Islands Monthly" April 1971 pp. 41–9</ref> They journeyed on the "Banyandah", a cruiser of {{convert|38|ft|m|0|order=flip}} from Madang up the coast to the mouth of the Sepik River, travelling along that river to Marienberg and Moim, then along the Karosameri River to the Karrawaddi River and on to the Arrabundio River and Yemas, after which it was necessary to transport their stores and equipment by pinnace, canoe and ultimately on foot to their Mountain Base on the upper Arrabundio River.
During their first expedition the Akmana Field Party prospected the tributaries of the Arrabundio and then trekked across a spur of the Central Mountain Range to sample the Upper Karrawaddi River. Retracing their steps to the Arrabundio they then headed out across another spur of the Central Mountain Range to the Junction of the Yuat River with the Jimmi and Baiyer Rivers, again without finding gold in sufficient quantity. Returning to Madang at the end of December 1929, several of the party went back to Sydney to obtain instructions from the Akmana Gold Prospecting Company.
In mid February 1930 the second expedition quickly returned to their Mountain Base and on across the mountains to the junction of the Yuat with the Baiyer and Jimmi Rivers. They prospected south along the Baiyer River to its junction with the Maramuni and Tarua Rivers, where they established a palisaded forward camp naming the place 'Akmana Junction.' From this base they prospected along the Maramuni River and its tributaries, again without success. Finally they prospected the Tarua River south past the tributary which flows to Waipai, once more without success and on the advice of mining engineer Seale, it was decided there was nothing to justify further exploration. They had not progressed to any country on the southern watershed through which the early explorers and prospectors travelled to the Hagan Range and Wabag. The party returned to Madang, sailing for Sydney on 3 July 1930.
After leading the first expedition, Sam Freeman did not return and Reg Beazley became party leader of the second expedition, with Pontey Seale mining engineer, Bill MacGregor and Beazley prospectors and recruiters, and Ernie Shepherd in charge of transport and supplies, prospecting when opportunity arose. They had all served overseas during World War I with the AIF on the western front, in Egypt and the Levant and had previously been to New Guinea. In 1926 Freeman was near Marienberg with Ormildah drilling for oil; Shepherd was with Dr. Wade and R.J. Winters on their geological survey of an oil lease of {{convert|10000|sqmi|km2|sigfig=2|order=flip}} in the Bogia and Nubio to Ramu region and up the Sepik River to Kubka {{convert|60|mi|km|sigfig=1|order=flip|abbr=on}} above Ambunto. Beazley was drilling test sites for oil with Matahower in the lower Sepik and he and McGregor recruited labour on the Sepik and explored grass country to Wee Wak. Beazley also prospected the Arrabundio for gold and on his promising report to Freeman, Akmana Gold Prospecting Coy was floated in 1928.
The Akmana Gold Prospecting Field Party made contact with many peoples they called: grass country people, head hunters, pygmies, wig–men, Kanakas, Poomani. These contacts were often with the help of Drybow/Dribu, a leader and spokesman of the wig–men, a most intelligent man of goodwill, with a quiet authority that brought forth friendly cooperation. 'We made a peaceful entry into this new country, establishing a reputation for fair trade and decent behaviour ... but gold was our interest and we had traced the rivers and tributaries as far as practicable where conditions and results justified the effort and found nothing worthwhile. In the many years since, there have been quite a few reports of prospecting parties in the area. But nothing of note has been reported: So we did not leave much behind, it seems.'<ref>Ernest Alfred Shepherd, "Akmana: A new name in the continuing story of New Guinea exploration" Pacific Islands Monthly April 1971 p. 49</ref>
'Members of the Akmana party donated wigs they had brought back to various museums. Two of them went to The [[Australian Museum]], Sydney (from Beazley and Shepherd). Current records at the Australian Museum show that Beazley's wig, described as "a cap composed of human hair from the headwaters of the U–at River, Central Mountains, Mandated Territory of NG", was lodged on 31 January 1930, presumably on his quick visit to Sydney after the first expedition. Shepherd presented another wig to Father Kirschbaum, who wanted to send it to Germany. The wigs at The Australian Museum were later confused with some brought out of the Highlands 10 years afterwards by [[Jim Taylor (explorer)|Jim Taylor]] during his Hagen–Sepik patrol, and wrongly attributed to him when put on display. Seale presented two wigs to the National Museum Canberra in 1930.'<ref>Ernest Alfred Shepherd, "Akmana: A new name in the continuing story of New Guinea exploration" Pacific Islands Monthly April 1971 p.49</ref>
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