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দৃশ্যমানউইকিপাঠ্য
RockyMasum (আলোচনা | অবদান)
প্রশাসক
১৪,৭৩৭টি সম্পাদনা
{{এ থেকে একত্রীকরণ}} ট্যাগ যোগ করা হয়েছে (টুইং)
RockyMasum (আলোচনা | অবদান)
প্রশাসক
১৪,৭৩৭টি সম্পাদনা
ইংরেজি লিখা পরিষ্কারকরণ
১ নং লাইন:
{{এ থেকে একত্রীকরণ|প্রাক-ইতিহাস|date=মে ২০২০}}
{{Human history and prehistory}}
{{কাজ চলছে}}{{Human history and prehistory}}মানুষের '''প্রাকইতিহাস''' (prehistory) হচ্ছে [[হোমিনিন|হোমিনিনদের]] দ্বারা {{circa}} ৩৩ লক্ষ বছর পূর্বে [[পাথরের যন্ত্র|পাথরের সরঞ্জাম]] বানানোর সময় থেকে [[লিখন পদ্ধতি|লিখন পদ্ধতির]] আবিষ্কারের মধ্যবর্তী সময়কাল। প্রথম লিখন পদ্ধতির আবিষ্কার হয় আনু. ৫৩০০ বছর আগে, কিন্তু বিস্তৃত পরিসরে লিখন পদ্ধতির গৃহীত হতে আরও হাজার বছর লেগে যায়, এবং কিছু মানব সংস্কৃতিতে ১৯ শতক অবধি লিখন পদ্ধতি ছিল না, আজও অনেক সংস্কৃতিতে কোন লিখন পদ্ধতি নেই। একারণে বিভিন্ন স্থানে বিভিন্ন সময়ে প্রাগৈতিহাসিক কাল বা প্রাকইতিহাসের সমাপ্তি ঘটে, এবং যেসব সমাজে খুব সম্প্রতি প্রাকইতিহাস সমাপ্ত হয়েছে সেসব সমাজে খুব কমই এই শব্দটির ব্যবহার হয়।
মানুষের '''প্রাকইতিহাস''' (prehistory) হচ্ছে [[হোমিনিন|হোমিনিনদের]] দ্বারা {{circa}} ৩৩ লক্ষ বছর পূর্বে [[পাথরের যন্ত্র|পাথরের সরঞ্জাম]] বানানোর সময় থেকে [[লিখন পদ্ধতি|লিখন পদ্ধতির]] আবিষ্কারের মধ্যবর্তী সময়কাল। প্রথম লিখন পদ্ধতির আবিষ্কার হয় আনু. ৫৩০০ বছর আগে, কিন্তু বিস্তৃত পরিসরে লিখন পদ্ধতির গৃহীত হতে আরও হাজার বছর লেগে যায়, এবং কিছু মানব সংস্কৃতিতে ১৯ শতক অবধি লিখন পদ্ধতি ছিল না, আজও অনেক সংস্কৃতিতে কোন লিখন পদ্ধতি নেই। একারণে বিভিন্ন স্থানে বিভিন্ন সময়ে প্রাগৈতিহাসিক কাল বা প্রাকইতিহাসের সমাপ্তি ঘটে, এবং যেসব সমাজে খুব সম্প্রতি প্রাকইতিহাস সমাপ্ত হয়েছে সেসব সমাজে খুব কমই এই শব্দটির ব্যবহার হয়।
 
[[মেসোপটেমিয়া|মেসোপটেমিয়ার]] [[সুমের]], [[সিন্ধু সভ্যতা]] এবং [[প্রাচীন মিশর]] ছিল প্রথম সভ্যতা যারা তাদের নিজেদের ঐতিহাসিক নথিসমূহকে সংরক্ষণ করার জন্য লিপির আবিষ্কার করে। এটি প্রাথমিক [[ব্রোঞ্জ যুগ|ব্রোঞ্জ যুগের]] শুরুতেই ঘটে যায়। প্রতিবেশী সভ্যতাগুলো প্রথম এদেরকে অনুসরণ করে। অন্যান্য বেশিরভাগ সভ্যতাতেই [[লৌহ যুগ|লৌহ যুগের]] সময় প্রাকইতিহাসের সমাপ্তি ঘটায়। প্রাক-ইতিহাসকে শ্রেণীবিভাগ করার [[তিন-যুগ পদ্ধতি]] অনুসারে প্রাকইতিহাস গঠিত হয় [[প্রস্তর যুগ]], এরপর ব্রোঞ্জ যুগ ও এরপর লৌহ যুগ নিয়ে। এই পদ্ধতিটি [[ইউরেশিয়া|ইউরেশিয়া]] ও [[উত্তর আফ্রিকা|উত্তর আফ্রিকার]] অনেক অঞ্চলের ক্ষেত্রে ব্যবহৃত হয়, কিন্তু সেই সব অঞ্চলের ক্ষেত্রে এই যুগপদ্ধতিগুলোর ব্যবহার হয় না যেখানে ইউরেশীয় সংস্পর্শের ফলে শক্ত ধারু পৌঁছায়, যেমন [[আমেরিকা অঞ্চল|আমেরিকাসমূহ]], [[ওশেনিয়া|ওশেনিয়া]], [[অস্ট্রেলিয়া|অস্ট্রেলিয়া]], এবং [[সাহারা-নিম্ন আফ্রিকা|সাহারা-নিম্ন আফ্রিকার]] অনেক অংশ। [[প্রাক-কলম্বীয় যুগ|প্রাক-কলম্বীয় সভ্যতার]] কিছু ব্যতিক্রম ছাড়া এই অঞ্চলগুলো ইউরেশীয়দের সংস্পর্শে আসার পূর্বে জটিল লিখন পদ্ধতির বিকাশ ঘটায়নি, এবং তাদের প্রাকইতিহাস তুলনামূলকভাবে সাম্প্রতিক কালে সমাপ্ত হয়; উদাহরণস্বরূপ ১৭৮৮ সালে অস্ট্রেলিয়ার প্রাকইতিহাস সমাপ্ত হয় বলে সাধারণত ধরা হয়।
৪৭ ⟶ ৪৮ নং লাইন:
সমগ্র পুরাপ্রস্তরযুগ ধরে, মানুষেরা সাধারণত যাযাবর [[শিকারী সংগ্রাহক]] হিসেবে জীবন যাপন করত। শিকারী-সংগ্রাহক সমাজগুলো খুব ছোট ও সমানাধিকারী হত<ref>Vanishing Voices : The Extinction of the World's Languages. By Daniel Nettle, Suzanne Romaine Merton Professor of English Language University of Oxford. pp. 102–103.</ref>, যদিও যেসব শিকারী-সংগ্রাহক সমাজে পর্যাপ্ত পরিমাণে সম্পদ বা অগ্রসর খাদ্য-সংগ্রহ পদ্ধতি ছিল সেগুলো জটিল সামাজিক কাঠামো যেমন সরদারি প্রথা (Chiefdom) এবং [[সামাজিক স্তরবিন্যাস]] সহ স্থায়ী জীবনধারার বিকাশ ঘটায়।<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Chiefdoms|year=1989|pages=84–88|doi=10.1086/203717|jstor=2743311|journal=Current Anthropology|volume=30|issue=1|last1=Earle|first1=Timothy}}</ref> এইসময়ে অধিক দূরবর্তী যোগাযোগের প্রতিষ্ঠা হয়ে থাকতে পারে, যেমনটা [[অস্ট্রেলীয় আদিবাসী|অস্ট্রেলীয় আদিবাসীদের]] "রাজপথ" [[সংলাইন]] এর ক্ষেত্রে দেখা যায়।<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/allinthemind/songlines-indigenous-memory-code/7581788|title=Songlines: the Indigenous memory code|date=2016-07-08|website=Radio National|language=en-AU|access-date=2019-02-18}}</ref>
 
==তথ্যসূত্র==
=== Mesolithic ===
{{MainReflist|Mesolithic30em}}
[[চিত্র:Dugout_boats_Kierikki_Centre_Oulu_20130526.JPG|থাম্ব|[[Dugout canoe]]]]
The Mesolithic, or Middle Stone Age (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''mesos'', 'middle', and ''lithos'', 'stone'), was a period in the development of human [[technology]] between the Palaeolithic and [[Neolithic]] periods of the Stone Age.
 
==বহিঃসংযোগ==
The Mesolithic period began at the end of the [[Pleistocene]] epoch, some 10,000 BP, and ended with [[Agriculture#History|the introduction of agriculture]], the date of which varied by geographic region. In some areas, such as the [[Near East]], agriculture was already underway by the end of the [[Pleistocene]], and there the Mesolithic is short and poorly defined. In areas with limited [[glacial]] impact, the term "[[Epipalaeolithic]]" is sometimes preferred.
 
Regions that experienced greater environmental effects as the [[Last glacial period|last ice age]] ended have a much more evident Mesolithic era, lasting millennia. In [[Northern Europe]], societies were able to live well on rich food supplies from the [[marsh]]lands fostered by the warmer climate. Such conditions produced distinctive human behaviours that are preserved in the material record, such as the [[Maglemosian]] and [[Azilian]] cultures. These conditions also delayed the coming of the Neolithic until as late as 4000 BCE (6,000 [[Before Present|BP]]) in northern Europe.
 
Remains from this period are few and far between, often limited to [[midden]]s. In forested areas, the first signs of [[deforestation]] have been found, although this would only begin in earnest during the Neolithic, when more space was needed for [[agriculture]].
 
The Mesolithic is characterized in most areas by small composite [[flint]] tools: [[microlith]]s and [[microburin]]s. [[Fishing tackle]], stone [[adze]]s and wooden objects, e.g. [[canoe]]s and [[Bow (weapon)|bows]], have been found at some sites. These technologies first occur in Africa, associated with the Azilian cultures, before spreading to Europe through the [[Ibero-Maurusian]] culture of Northern Africa and the [[Kebaran]] culture of the [[Levant]]. However, independent discovery is not ruled out.
 
=== Neolithic ===
{{Main|Neolithic}}
[[চিত্র:Malta_Hagar_Qim_BW_2011-10-04_16-39-32.JPG|থাম্ব|Entrance to the Ġgantija phase temple complex of [[Ħaġar Qim]], [[Malta]], 3900 BCE.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.heritagemalta.org/hagarqim.html|title=Hagarqim « Heritage Malta|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090203124226/http://www.heritagemalta.org/hagarqim.html|archivedate=2009-02-03|url-status=dead|accessdate=2009-02-20|df=}}</ref>]]
[[চিত্র:Néolithique_0001.jpg|থাম্ব|An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools. Neolithic stone artifacts are by definition polished and, except for specialty items, not chipped.]]
"Neolithic" means "New Stone Age." Although there were several species of human beings during the [[Paleolithic]], by the Neolithic only ''[[Homo sapiens sapiens]]'' remained.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.worldmuseumofman.org/neolithic.php|title=World Museum of Man: Neolithic / Chalcolithic Period|publisher=World Museum of Man|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021213642/http://www.worldmuseumofman.org/neolithic.php|archivedate=21 October 2013|url-status=dead|accessdate=21 August 2013|df=}}</ref> (''[[Homo floresiensis]]'' may have survived right up to the very dawn of the Neolithic, about 12,200 years ago.)<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/1155557|title=The origin of Homo floresiensis and its relation to evolutionary processes under isolation|last=Lyras|year=2008|journal=Anthropological Science|display-authors=etal}}</ref> This was a period of primitive [[technological]] and [[social]] development. It began about 10,200 BCE in some parts of the Middle East, and later in other parts of the world<ref name="Bellwood">[https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0631205667&pageID=S00N&checkSum=n2ERnZHriUc/fSrW7Myf4CEtIc8x5mVhcabli2BNrEs=# Figure 3.3] from ''First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies'' by [[Peter Bellwood]], 2004</ref> and ended between 4,500 and 2,000 BCE. The Neolithic is a progression of behavioral and cultural characteristics and changes, including the use of wild and domestic crops and of [[Domestication|domesticated animals]].
 
Early Neolithic farming was limited to a narrow range of plants, both wild and domesticated, which included [[einkorn wheat]], [[millet]] and [[spelt]], and the keeping of [[Origin of the domestic dog|dogs]], [[sheep]] and [[Goat#History|goats]]. By about 6,900–6,400 BCE, it included domesticated [[cattle]] and [[Domesticated pig|pigs]], the establishment of permanently or seasonally inhabited settlements, and the use of [[pottery]]. The Neolithic period saw the development of early [[village]]s, [[agriculture]], animal [[domestication]], [[tool]]s and the onset of the earliest recorded incidents of warfare.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://perfectirishgifts.com/blog/2008/06/prehistoric_massacres_the_twin.html|title=The Perfect Gift: Prehistoric Massacres. The twin vices of women and cattle in prehistoric Europe<!-- Bot generated title -->|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611045553/http://perfectirishgifts.com/blog/2008/06/prehistoric_massacres_the_twin.html|archivedate=June 11, 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Neolithic era commenced with the beginning of [[History of agriculture|farming]], which produced the "[[Neolithic Revolution]]". It ended when metal tools became widespread (in the [[Chalcolithic|Copper Age]] or [[Bronze Age]]; or, in some geographical regions, in the [[Iron Age]]). The term ''Neolithic'' is commonly used in the [[Old World]], as its application to cultures in the [[Americas]] and [[Oceania]] that did not fully develop metal-working technology raises problems.{{Specify|date=October 2019}}
[[চিত্র:Luni_sul_Mignone_monumental_building.jpg|বাম|থাম্ব|The monumental building at Luni sul Mignone in [[Blera]], Italy, 3500 BCE.]]
Settlements became more permanent with some having circular houses with single rooms made of [[mudbrick]]. Settlements might have a surrounding stone wall to keep domesticated animals in and protect the inhabitants from other tribes. Later settlements have rectangular mud-brick houses where the family lived together in single or multiple rooms. Burial findings suggest an [[ancestor cult]] where people [[Plastered human skulls|preserved skulls]] of the dead. The [[Vinča culture]] may have created the earliest system of writing.<ref>{{cite book|title=Pre-writing in Southeastern Europe: The Sign System of the Vinča Culture ca. 4000 BC|last=Winn|first=Shan|year=1981|publisher=Western Publishers|pages=|isbn=|location=Calgary}}</ref> The [[megalith]]ic temple complexes of [[Ġgantija]] are notable for their gigantic structures. Although some late Eurasian Neolithic societies formed complex stratified chiefdoms or even states, states evolved in Eurasia only with the rise of metallurgy, and most Neolithic societies on the whole were relatively simple and egalitarian.<ref name="Leonard D. Katz Rigby 2000 352">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=6wFHth05xkoC&pg=PA158|title=Evolutionary Origins of Morality: Cross-disciplinary Perspectives|year=2000|publisher=Imprint Academic|page=158|isbn=978-0-7190-5612-3|author=Leonard D. Katz Rigby|author2=S. Stephen Henry Rigby|location=United kingdom}}</ref> Most clothing appears to have been made of animal skins, as indicated by finds of large numbers of bone and antler pins which are ideal for fastening leather. [[Woolen|Wool]] cloth and [[linen]] might have become available during the later Neolithic,<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/203730|title=Smooth and Cool, or Warm and Soft: Investigatingthe Properties of Cloth in Prehistory|last=Harris|first=Susanna|year=2009|publisher=Academia.edu|accessdate=5 September 2013|website=North European Symposium for Archaeological Textiles X}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mitchellteachers.org/WorldHistory/MrMEarlyHumansProject/PDFs/PaleolithictoNeolithicDescriptions.pdf|title=Aspects of Life During the Neolithic Period|website=|publisher=Teachers' Curriculum Institute|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505105137/http://www.mitchellteachers.org/WorldHistory/MrMEarlyHumansProject/PDFs/PaleolithictoNeolithicDescriptions.pdf|archivedate=5 May 2016|url-status=dead|accessdate=5 September 2013|df=}}</ref> as suggested by finds of perforated stones that (depending on size) may have served as [[Spindle (textiles)|spindle whorls]] or [[loom]] weights.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/1587878|title=Pierced clay disks and Late Neolithic textile production|last=Gibbs|first=Kevin T.|year=2006|publisher=Academia.org|accessdate=5 September 2013|website=Proceedings of the 5th International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/handle/10125/17022/?sequence=1|title=Unraveling the Enigma of the Bi: The Spindle Whorl as the Model of the Ritual Disk|last=Green|first=Jean M|year=1993|pages=105–124|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150211201745/http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/handle/10125/17022/?sequence=1|archivedate=2015-02-11|url-status=dead|accessdate=|journal=Asian Perspectives|issue=1|volume=32|df=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=The clay loom weight, in: Early Neolithic ritual activity, Bronze Age occupation and medieval activity at Pitlethie Road, Leuchars, Fife|last=Cook|first=M|year=2007|pages=1–23|journal=Tayside and Fife Archaeological Journal|volume=13}}</ref>
 
=== Chalcolithic ===
{{Main|Chalcolithic}}
[[চিত্র:Los_Millares_recreacion_cuadro.jpg|থাম্ব|Artist's impression of a Copper Age walled city, [[Los Millares]], [[Iberia]]]]
In Old World archaeology, the "Chalcolithic", "Eneolithic" or "Copper Age" refers to a transitional period where early [[copper]] metallurgy appeared alongside the widespread use of stone tools. During this period, some weapons and tools were made of copper. This period was still largely Neolithic in character. It is a phase of the [[Bronze Age]] before it was discovered that adding [[tin]] to [[copper]] formed the harder [[bronze]]. The Copper Age was originally defined as a transition between the [[Neolithic]] and the Bronze Age. However, because it is characterized by the use of metals, the Copper Age is considered a part of the Bronze Age rather than the Stone Age.
[[চিত্র:TimnaChalcolithicMine.JPG|বাম|থাম্ব|Chalcolithic copper mine in [[Timna Valley]], [[Negev Desert]], [[Israel]]]]
An archaeological site in [[Serbia]] contains the oldest securely dated evidence of copper making at high temperature, from 7,500 years ago. The find in June 2010 extends the known record of copper smelting by about 800 years, and suggests that copper smelting may have been invented in separate parts of Asia and Europe at that time rather than spreading from a single source.<ref name="archaeology.ws">{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/60563/description/Serbian_site_may_have_hosted_first_copper_makers|title=Serbian site may have hosted first copper makers|author=|date=July 17, 2010|work=ScienceNews}}</ref> The emergence of [[metallurgy]] may have occurred first in the [[Fertile Crescent]], where it gave rise to the Bronze Age in the [[4th millennium BCE]] (the traditional view), though finds from the [[Vinča culture]] in Europe have now been securely dated to slightly earlier than those of the Fertile Crescent. [[Timna Valley]] contains evidence of copper mining 9,000 to 7,000 years ago. The process of transition from [[Neolithic]] to Chalcolithic in the Middle East is characterized in archaeological stone tool assemblages by a decline in high quality raw material procurement and use. North Africa and the Nile Valley imported its iron technology from the [[Near East]] and followed the Near Eastern course of Bronze Age and [[Iron Age]] development. However the [[Iron Age]] and Bronze Age occurred simultaneously in much of Africa.
 
== Transition into ancient history ==
{{Further|Protohistory|Ancient history}}
 
=== Bronze Age ===
{{Main|Bronze Age}}
[[চিত্র:Maler_der_Grabkammer_des_Sennudem_001.jpg|থাম্ব|[[Ox]]-drawn [[plow]], [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], c. 1200 BCE.]]
The Bronze Age is the earliest period in which some civilizations have reached the end of prehistory, by introducing written records. The Bronze Age or parts thereof are thus considered to be part of prehistory only for the regions and civilizations who adopted or developed a system of keeping written records during later periods. The [[History of writing|invention of writing]] coincides in some areas with the early beginnings of the Bronze Age. Soon after the appearance of writing, people started creating texts including written accounts of events and records of administrative matters.
 
The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced [[metalworking]] (at least in systematic and widespread use) included techniques for [[smelting]] [[copper]] and [[tin]] from naturally occurring outcroppings of ores, and then combining them to cast [[bronze]]. These naturally occurring ores typically included arsenic as a common impurity. Copper/tin ores are rare, as reflected in the fact that there were no tin bronzes in Western Asia before 3000 BCE. The Bronze Age forms part of the [[three-age system]] for prehistoric societies. In this system, it follows the [[Neolithic]] in some areas of the world.
 
While copper is a common ore, deposits of tin are rare in the [[Old World]], and often had to be traded or carried considerable distances from the few mines, stimulating the creation of extensive trading routes. In many areas as far apart as China and England, the valuable new material was used for weapons but for a long time apparently not available for agricultural tools. Much of it seems to have been hoarded by social elites, and sometimes deposited in extravagant quantities, from [[Chinese ritual bronze]]s and [[Copper Hoard Culture|Indian copper hoards]] to European [[hoard]]s of unused axe-heads.
 
By the end of the Bronze Age large states, which are often called empires, had arisen in Egypt, China, [[Anatolia]] (the [[Hittites]]) and [[History of Mesopotamia|Mesopotamia]], all of them literate.
 
=== Iron Age ===
{{Main|Iron Age|Classical antiquity}}The Iron Age is not part of prehistory for all civilizations who had introduced written records during the Bronze Age. Most remaining civilizations did so during the Iron Age, often through conquest by the empires, which continued to expand during this period. For example, in most of Europe conquest by the [[Roman Empire]] means that the term Iron Age is replaced by "Roman", "[[Gallo-Roman]]" and similar terms after the conquest.
 
In archaeology, the Iron Age refers to the advent of [[ferrous metallurgy]]. The adoption of [[iron]] coincided with other changes in some past cultures, often including more sophisticated agricultural practices, religious beliefs and artistic styles, which makes the archaeological Iron Age coincide with the "[[Axial Age]]" in the history of philosophy. Although iron ore is common, the metalworking techniques necessary to use iron are very different from those needed for the metal used earlier, and iron was slow-spreading and for long mainly used for weapons, while bronze remained typical for tools, as well as art.
 
== Timeline ==
{{Human timeline}}{{Further|Timeline of human evolution|Timeline of the Stone Age|Timeline of human prehistory}}All dates are approximate and conjectural, obtained through research in the fields of [[anthropology]], [[archaeology]], [[genetics]], [[geology]], or [[linguistics]]. They are all subject to revision due to new discoveries or improved calculations. BP stands for "[[Before Present]] (1950)." BCE stands for Before [[Common Era]]".
 
; [[Lower Paleolithic]]
 
* c. 2.8 million BP – Genus ''[[Homo]]'' appears
* c. 2.5 million BP – Evidence of early human [[tool]]s
* c. 600,000 BP – [[Hunting-gathering]]
* c. 400,000 BP – [[Control of fire by early humans]]
 
; [[Middle Paleolithic]]
 
* c. 300,000–30,000 BP – [[Mousterian]] ([[Neanderthal]]) culture in Europe.<ref>{{cite journal|url=|title=Neanderthals, competition and the origin of modern human behaviour in the Levant|year=2003|pages=173–187|last1=Shea|first1=J.J.|journal=Evolutionary Anthropology|volume=12|issue=}}</ref>
* c. 200,000 BP – [[Anatomically modern humans]] ''([[Homo sapiens sapiens]])'' appear in Africa, one of whose characteristics is a lack of significant body hair compared to other primates. See e.g. [[Omo remains]].
* c. 170,000–83,000 BP – Invention of [[clothing]]<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/28/1/29.full|title=Origin of Clothing Lice Indicates Early Clothing Use by Anatomically Modern Humans in Africa|last2=Kitchen|first2=A.|date=September 2010|pages=29–32|doi=10.1093/molbev/msq234|pmc=3002236|pmid=20823373|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution|last1=Toups|first1=M.A.|issue=1|volume=28|last3=Light|first3=J.E.|last4=Reed|first4=D. L.}}</ref>
* c. 75,000 BP – [[Toba catastrophe theory|Toba Volcano]] supereruption.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://anthropology.net/2007/07/06/mount-toba-eruption-ancient-humans-unscathed-study-claims/|title=Mount Toba Eruption – Ancient Humans Unscathed, Study Claims|last=|first=|date=|work=|accessdate=2008-04-20|publisher=|pages=|language=|coauthors=}}</ref>
* c. 80,000–50,000 BP – ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' exit Africa as a single population.<ref name="NYT-20160921">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/22/science/ancient-dna-human-history.html|title=How We Got Here: DNA Points to a Single Migration From Africa|last=Zimmer|first=Carl|date=September 21, 2016|work=[[New York Times]]|accessdate=September 22, 2016|authorlink=Carl Zimmer}}</ref><ref name="traces">This is indicated by the M130 marker in the [[Y chromosome]]. "Traces of a Distant Past", by Gary Stix, ''Scientific American'', July 2008, pp. 56–63.</ref> In the next millennia, descendants from this population migrate to southern India, the Malay islands, Australia, Japan, China, [[Siberia]], [[Alaska]], and the northwestern coast of North America.<ref name="traces" />
* c. 80,000–50,000? BP – [[Behavioral modernity]], by this point including [[language]] and sophisticated cognition
 
; [[Upper Paleolithic]]
 
* c. 45,000 BP / 43,000 BCE – Beginnings of [[Châtelperronian]] culture in France.
* c. 40,000 BP / 38,000 BCE – First human settlement in the [[Southern Australia|southern half of the Australian mainland]], by [[indigenous Australian]]s (including the future sites of [[Sydney]],<ref name="Settlers' history rewritten">{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/settlers-history-rewritten/2007/09/14/1189276983698.html|title=Settlers' history rewritten: go back 30,000 years|last=Macey|first=Richard|date=2007|work=The Sydney Morning Herald|accessdate=5 July 2014}}</ref><ref name="Aboriginal people and place">{{cite web|url=http://www.sydneybarani.com.au/sites/aboriginal-people-and-place/|title=Aboriginal people and place|date=2013|publisher=Sydney Barani|accessdate=5 July 2014}}</ref> [[Perth]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.archaeology.arts.uwa.edu.au/staff/bowdler__research_interests/the_pleistocene_pacific|title=The Pleistocene Pacific|author=Sandra Bowdler|work=Published in 'Human settlement', in D. Denoon (ed) The Cambridge History of the Pacific Islanders. pp. 41–50. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge|publisher=[[University of Western Australia]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216181223/http://www.archaeology.arts.uwa.edu.au/about/research/bowdler__research_interests/the_pleistocene_pacific|archivedate=16 February 2008|accessdate=26 February 2008}}</ref> and [[Melbourne]].<ref>Gary Presland, ''The First Residents of Melbourne's Western Region'', (revised edition), Harriland Press, 1997. {{ISBN|0-646-33150-7}}. Presland says on p. 1: "There is some evidence to show that people were living in the [[Maribyrnong River]] valley, near present day [[Keilor]], about 40,000 years ago."</ref>)
* c. 32,000 BP / 30,000 BCE – Beginnings of [[Aurignacian]] culture, exemplified by the [[cave paintings]] ("[[parietal art]]") of [[Chauvet Cave]] in France.
* c. 30,500 BP / 28,500 BCE – New Guinea is populated by colonists from Asia or Australia.<ref>James Trager, ''The People's Chronology'', 1994, {{ISBN|0-8050-3134-0}}</ref>
* c. 30,000 BP / 28,000 BCE – A herd of [[reindeer]] is slaughtered and butchered by humans in the Vezere Valley in what is today France.<ref>Gene S. Stuart, "Ice Age Hunters: Artists in Hidden Cages." In ''Mysteries of the Ancient World'', a publication of the National Geographic Society, 1979. pp. 11–18.</ref>
* c. 28,000–20,000 BP – [[Gravettian]] period in Europe. Harpoons, needles, and saws invented.
* c. 26,500 BP – [[Last Glacial Maximum]] (LGM). Subsequently, the ice melts and the glaciers retreat again ([[Late Glacial Maximum]]). During this latter period human beings return to Western Europe (see [[Magdalenian]] culture) and enter North America from Eastern Siberia for the first time (see [[Paleo-Indians]], [[pre-Clovis]] culture and [[Prehistoric migration and settlement of the Americas from Asia|Settlement of the Americas]]).
* c. 26,000 BP / 24,000 BCE – People around the world use fibers to make baby-carriers, clothes, bags, baskets, and nets.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/prehistoric-art/paleolithic-art/a/venus-of-willendorf|title=Venus of Willendorf|website=Khan Academy|language=en|access-date=2019-02-18}}</ref>
* c. 25,000 BP / 23,000 BCE – A [[Dolní Věstonice (archaeology)|settlement]] consisting of huts built of rocks and [[mammoth]] bones is founded near what is now [[Dolní Věstonice]] in [[Moravia]] in the [[Czech Republic]]. This is the oldest human permanent settlement that has been found by archaeologists.<ref>{{cite book|title=Mysteries of the Ancient World|last=Stuart|first=Gene S.|year=1979|publisher=National Geographic Society|page=19|chapter=Ice Age Hunters: Artists in Hidden Cages}}</ref>
* c. 23,000 BP / 21,000 BCE – Small-scale trial cultivation of plants in [[Ohalo II]], a hunter-gatherers' sedentary camp on the shore of the Sea of Galilee, Israel.<ref>The Origin of Cultivation and Proto-Weeds, Long Before Neolithic Farming Ainit Snir et al., PLOS July 22, 2015 {{doi|10.1371/journal.pone.0131422}}</ref>
* c. 16,000 BP / 14,000 BCE – [[Wisent]] sculpted in clay deep inside the cave now known as Le Tuc d'Audoubert in the French Pyrenees near what is now the border of Spain.<ref>{{cite book|title=Mysteries of the Ancient World|last=Stuart|first=Gene S.|year=1979|publisher=National Geographic Society|pages=8–10|chapter=Ice Age Hunters: Artists in Hidden Cages}}</ref>
* c. 14,800 BP / 12,800 BCE – The Humid Period begins in North Africa. The region that would later become the [[Sahara]] is wet and fertile, and the [[Aquifer]]s are full.<ref>"Shift from Savannah to Sahara was Gradual", by Kenneth Chang, ''[[New York Times]]'', May 9, 2008.</ref>
 
; [[Mesolithic]]/[[Epipaleolithic]]
 
* c. 12,500 to 9,500 BCE – [[Natufian culture]]: a culture of sedentary hunter-gatherers who may have cultivated [[Rye]] in the [[Levant]] ([[Eastern Mediterranean]])
 
; [[Neolithic]]
 
* c. 9,400–9,200 BCE – [[Figs]] of a [[parthenocarpic]] (and therefore sterile) type are cultivated in the early [[Neolithic]] village [[Gilgal I]] (in the [[Jordan Valley (Middle East)|Jordan Valley]], 13&nbsp;km north of [[Jericho]]). The find predates the domestication of [[wheat]], [[barley]], and [[legume]]s, and may thus be the first known instance of agriculture.<ref>Kislev ''et al.'' (2006a, b), Lev-Yadun ''et al.'' (2006)</ref>
* c. 9,000 BCE – Circles of T-shaped stone pillars erected at [[Göbekli Tepe]] in the [[Southeastern Anatolia Region]] of Turkey during [[pre-pottery Neolithic A]] (PPNA) period. As yet unexcavated structures at the site are thought to date back to the epipaleolithic.
* c. 8,000 BC / 7000 BCE – In northern [[Mesopotamia]], now northern [[Iraq]], cultivation of barley and wheat begins. At first they are used for [[beer]], [[gruel]], and [[soup]], eventually for [[bread]].<ref>Kiple, Kenneth F. and Ornelas, Kriemhild Coneè, eds., The Cambridge World History of Food, Cambridge University Press, 2000, p. 83</ref> In early agriculture at this time the planting stick is used, but it is replaced by a primitive [[plow]] in subsequent centuries.<ref>"No-Till: The Quiet Revolution", by David Huggins and John Reganold, ''Scientific American'', July 2008, pp. 70–77.</ref> Around this time, a round stone tower, now preserved at about 8.5 meters high and 8.5 meters in diameter is built in [[Jericho]].<ref>Fagan, Brian M, ed. ''The Oxford Companion to Archaeology'', Oxford University Press, Oxford 1996 {{ISBN|978-0-521-40216-3}} p 363</ref>
 
; [[Chalcolithic]]
 
* c. 3,700 BCE – [[Cuneiform]] writing appears in [[Sumer]], and records begin to be kept. According to the majority of specialists, the first Mesopotamian writing was a tool that had little connection to the spoken language.<ref>Glassner, Jean-Jacques. The Invention of Cuneiform: Writing In Sumer. Trans.Zainab, Bahrani. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003. Ebook.</ref>
* c. 3,300 BCE – Approximate date of death of "[[Ötzi]] the Iceman", found preserved in ice in the [[Ötztal Alps]] in 1991. A copper-bladed axe, which is a characteristic technology of this era, was found with the corpse.
* c. 3,000 BCE – [[Stonehenge]] construction begins. In its first version, it consisted of a circular ditch and bank, with 56 wooden posts.<ref>Caroline Alexander, "Stonehenge", ''National Geographic'', June 2008.</ref>
 
== By region ==
 
; Old World
 
* [[Prehistoric Africa]]
** [[Predynastic Egypt]]
** [[Prehistoric Central North Africa]]
* [[History of Asia|Prehistoric Asia]]
** East Asia:
*** [[Prehistoric China]]
*** [[Prehistoric Korea]]
*** [[Japanese Paleolithic]]
*** [[East Asian Bronze Age]]
*** [[Chinese Bronze Age]]
** South Asia
*** [[Indus Valley Civilization|Prehistory of India]]
*** [[South Asian Stone Age]]
*** [[Prehistory of Sri Lanka]]
** [[Prehistory of Central Asia]]
** [[Prehistoric Siberia]]
** Southeast Asia:
*** [[Prehistoric Indonesia]]
*** [[Prehistoric Thailand]]
** Southwest Asia (Near East)
*** [[Prehistory of Iran]]
*** [[Aurignacian]]
*** [[Natufian culture]]
*** [[Ubaid period]]
*** [[Uruk period]]
*** [[Ancient Near East]]
* [[Prehistoric Europe]]
** [[Prehistoric Caucasus]]
*** [[Prehistoric Georgia]]
*** [[Prehistoric Armenia]]
** [[Paleolithic Europe]]
** [[Neolithic Europe]]
** [[Bronze Age Europe]]
** [[Iron Age Europe]]
** [[Atlantic fringe]]
*** [[Prehistoric Britain]]
*** [[Prehistoric Ireland]]
*** [[Prehistoric Iberia]]
** [[Prehistoric Balkans]]
 
; New World
 
* [[Pre-Columbian Americas]]
** [[Prehistoric Southwestern cultural divisions]]
** [[2nd millennium BC in North American history|2nd millennium BCE in North American history]]
** [[1st millennium BC in North American history|1st millennium BCE in North American history]]
** [[1st millennium in North American history]]
** [[Prehistory of Newfoundland and Labrador]]
** [[Prehistory of the Canadian Maritimes]]
** [[Prehistory of Quebec]]
* Oceania
** [[Prehistoric Australia]]
 
== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Archaeoastronomy]]
* [[Archaeology]]
* [[Archaic humans|Archaic Homo sapiens]]
* [[Band society]]
* [[Behavioral modernity]]
* [[History of the family]]
* [[Holocene]]
* [[Human evolution]]
* [[Lineage-bonded society]]
* [[Paleoanthropology]]
* [[Pantribal sodalities]]
* [[Periodization]]
* [[Prehistoric art]]
** [[List of Stone Age art]]
* [[Prehistoric medicine]]
* [[Prehistoric migration]]
* [[Prehistoric music]]
* [[Prehistoric religion]]
* [[Prehistoric technology]]
* [[Prehistoric warfare]]
* [[Three-age system]]
* [[Younger Dryas]]
{{div col end}}
 
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
 
== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
 
২৪০ ⟶ ৫৯ নং লাইন:
* [http://www.neolithique.eu/index.html Prehistory in Algeria and in Morocco]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071106014600/http://sd71.bc.ca/sd71/school/courtmid/Library/subject_resources/socials/early_humans.htm Early Humans] a collection of resources for students from the Courtenay Middle School Library.
 
{{Prehistoric technology|state=expanded}}
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